The break from the Third Republic came about in part due to the shock and humiliation of being so rapidly bested by the German military, and French leaders were looking everywhere for an explanation for their defeat. That blame fell squarely on the shoulders of Communists, socialists and Jews. Jewish people in particular had been experiencing animosity for decades, since the Dreyfus Affair of the s. But all the foreign Jews were put into camps, they cracked down on dissent, and it was in some ways increasingly a police state.
Did the regime collaborate with Nazis out of self-preservation, or did it have its own agenda? The misconception that the Vichy Regime was the lesser of two evils endured only for the first few decades after the war. Since then, as more archival material has come to light , historians have gradually come to see the collaborators as willing participants in the Holocaust.
Before the Nazis ever demanded the Vichy government participate in anti-Semitic policies, the French had enacted policies that removed Jews from civil service and began seizing Jewish property. If they stayed behind, he reasoned, who would care for them? Philippe Petain , a World War I hero. When Allied forces arrived in North Africa to team up with the Free French Forces to beat back the Axis occupiers, and French naval crews, emboldened by the Allied initiative, scuttled the French fleet off Toulon, in southeastern France, to keep it from being used by those same Axis powers, Hitler retaliated.
In violation of the armistice agreement, German troops moved into southeastern-Vichy, France. From that point forward, Petain became virtually useless, and France merely a future gateway for the Allied counteroffensive in Western Europe, namely, D-Day. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Ken Saro-Wiwa, a Nigerian playwright and environmental activist, is hanged in Nigeria along with eight other activists from the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People Mosop.
The Terrapins, who had been losing at the half, ended up winning He also pledged He was a patriot, but not a foolhardy one. As a boy, he had been brought up on the horror of the trenches and, as an only child, pleased his mother and himself by joining the navy before he was conscripted into the army.
Early in , he was demobbed and returned to his studies. I have been involved in moments of activism, but not so as to threaten my studies or to risk arrest. I marched against the Vietnam War, aged 15, in , but was relieved that the size of the crowd made it impossible to enter Grosvenor Square, where the leading activists were clashing with police outside the American Embassy.
I am afraid that I did not join them; my final examinations were coming up and I did not want to endanger my academic future. In , I would most probably have continued with my studies, but certainly chafed under the Vichy regime and German occupation.
Of all the resisters I have written about, I probably feel closest to Lecompte-Boinet. I would have joined those who escaped across the Pyrenees and, like them, would have been held for some time in the Francoist camp of Miranda del Ebro, near Burgos.
Eventually, I would have got to Gibraltar, but rather than cross to North Africa, I would have joined a British ship, as he did. My father had a fantasy that he would arrive in Singapore in a white uniform and liberate his father, whom he scarcely knew, from Changi Prison, where he was being held by the Japanese.
Unfortunately, his father died there in August , but it would be good to act out the fantasy all the same. M aybe you are now thinking whether you would have resisted then, or whether you might resist in the future, should circumstances dictate. Here are a series of questions that might help you to find out:. This is not difficult to work out.
If you scored predominately iii s, you are a resister in the making. If not, you are among the majority who accommodate to the status quo. Today, we are living in a world in which the possibility of resistance is again on the agenda.
We have not been invaded or occupied but there has been an upsurge of populist politics, denouncing politicians, elites and experts, and a rise of nationalism and xenophobia, hostile to immigrants and foreigners. Resistance is most likely from groups facing discrimination, persecution, imprisonment or deportation. There are forms of opposition that might be called protest rather than resistance, as protest is usually in liberal societies.
Resistance is most likely to come from those groups facing discrimination, persecution, imprisonment or deportation — Black British, African Americans, Mexican Americans and Muslims. There might come a day when immigrants deemed illegal are threatened by mass deportation. This term was used by Protestant rescuers during the Second World War who escorted Jews to freedom in Switzerland, and could be revived in the United States by rescuers drawn from the immigrant communities and from a minority of sympathisers mobilised in the population at large.
This would be a natural and obvious form of resistance. During the French Revolution, it was argued that insurrection against a tyrannical government was legitimate. Modern biomedicine sees the body as a closed mechanistic system. But illness shows us to be permeable, ecological beings. Nitin K Ahuja. They are spreading like branching plants across the globe. Should we rein cities in or embrace their biomorphic potential? Josh Berson.
Thinkers and theories. Some see Plato as a pure rationalist, others as a fantastical mythmaker. His deft use of stories tells a more complex tale. Tae-Yeoun Keum. This law requiring French men to carry out an obligatory term of labor in Germany had led the proliferation of opponents to the regime — and might threaten the German rearguard in the event of an Allied landing. As of autumn , large-scale military operations began, in partnership with the Sipo-SD, which was in charge of the policing aspect and the fate of the persons arrested.
Four major operations were carried out from February to April A. Massacres of the civilian population became increasingly frequent, especially after the Allied landing in Normandy 99 people were hanged in Tulle, civilians, including children, were killed at Oradour-sur-Glane , etc. Lieb, , and for the map of the largest massacres carried out. The Vichy forces mirrored this radicalization of repression. At all hierarchical levels, there was regular contact between German and French personnel.
Darnand put himself — and his police force — at the service of the total war the Germans were engaged in. Negotiation was all the less relevant that the head of the Milice did not even wish it. Basch, etc. September 2, : Convoy number 59 left the Bobigny train station on its way to Auschwitz; over half the deportees on board were French citizens.
The majority of the nearly 1, male deportees in this new convoy, many of which had been arrested as they were attempting to cross the Pyrenees Mountains into Spain, were sent to the new Dora Kommando which was being formed in order to build and set up the production lines for German secret weapons, the future V2 rockets A. Sellier, ; FMD, September 9, : The last train of NN prisoners due to be tried in the Reich left on its way to Hinzert.
September 10, : Alois Brunnerarrived in Nice and combed through the streets with a small Kommando unit , checking the papers of people whose appearance he found suspicious, regardless of their nationality R. September 17, : A new mass deportation convoy carried nearly 1, prisoners, which had been arrested as the result of a repression measure, to Buchenwald.
Like the September 3 convoy, these were men that were physically fit enough to dig the Dora tunnels; the working conditions were terrible and many died in the weeks and months that followed A.
Courtois, D. Peschanski, A. Rayski, ; Th. October 7 and 28, November 20, December 7 and 17, : Five new convoys of French and foreign Jews left Bobigny, heading to Auschwitz. Some of them were always gassed upon arrival S. October 28 and December 14, : Two new convoys of prisoners arrested due to repressive measures — these were more and more often composed of arrested Resistance fighters — were sent to Buchenwald, to the work Kommandos and to the Dora camp FMD, December — January : Almost members of the Alliance Resistance network, who had been arrested by German counter-espionage services, were deported to Reich prisons to be tried, in small groups of 30 to 40 people.
In the end, few of them were prosecuted and the others were executed in the second half of the year FMD, , vol. This time, Darnand and Laval were informed and they yielded. Almost Jews, including over French citizens, were arrested by the Germans.
At the end of January, a similar round-up was organized in Poitiers, with the same quantitative result. In , two large operations on January 22 and February 4, led to the arrest of nearly 1, people. But the Germans did not put pressure on the Police Headquarters, and did not receive the complete lists they wanted until August 2 S. In December , the decision had been made to make the Romainville fort the main transit camp for women due to be deported.
January 20 and February 10, : Three convoys left the Bobigny train station, heading to Auschwitz. The detainees rounded up in Bordeaux were deported on January 20; those from Poitiers and from were sent off on February 3 and 10 S. Lieb, Early March — mid-April, : Due to a gradual increase in the deportation of members of the Resistance since spring , in addition to the steady pace of the convoys deporting Jews from France — though this was not as fast as in — the year was characterized by a considerable number of departures.
The variety of procedures leading to deportation was also striking, as the calendar of early spring shows. Two convoys of Jews left Bobigny and headed to Auschwitz on March 7 1, people were on this train; they had arrived at Drancy on February 10 and On April 13, convoy 71 deported almost 1, Jews, including children under 12 years of age; among these were some of those arrested at Izieu by Klaus Barbie, the head of the Gestapo in Lyon S.
Simone Jacob, who is now known as Simone Veil a French magistrate and politician , was on this train. Nearly 2, Jews were also arrested in provincial France by the Gestapo, in order to form future convoys S. Almost 1, others were deported on April 6, also in the direction of Austria.
Convoys of NN prisoners and detainees found guilty by military courts were still being formed and sent inside the Reich ; among these were four consecutive trains of female NN prisoners who were taken to the Aachen prison. At least 8 prisoners found guilty by a German military court in the occupied zone were sent to a prison in the Reich to serve their sentence. In March , the first special trains took members of the Alliance Resistance network to the Alsatian camp of Schirmeck; until June, of them were secretly detained there, and of them were executed on September 1, shot in the back of the neck in the Natzweiler camp nearby FMD, Penaud, ; P.
April , : The German army carried out a new operation against the maquis and the Resistance groups in Ain and Jura A. Meyer, ; P. But this time, this was not linked to the reprisal policy. It was more likely to have resulted from overcrowding in Buchenwald, the camp where the deportees of this convoy were eventually sent two weeks later H. Clogenson, P. Le Goupil, undated. May 15, : Almost men, all able-bodied adults, were deported on convoy number 73 from the Bobigny train station, as usual, but this time they were sent to Kaunas Lithuania and Tallub Estonia.
May , : On May 20, 1, Jews, including many families with small children, were deported to Auschwitz. This was the first large convoy of members of the Resistance to be sent there S.
Klarsfeld, ; FMD, June 6, : The Allies landed in Normandy. The final phase of the German occupation of France began. Two days earlier, a new convoy of over 2, deportees arrested due to repression measures had been taken to the Neuengamme camp.
Thus, as the German troops moved toward the Normandy front, there were many massacres of civilians. This was an extreme case which did not happen again on the same scale J. June , : The German troops took control of Mont-Mouchet, in Auvergne, where a large number of members of the maquis had based their organization. Over members of the Resistance and around 50 civilians were killed E.
June 18 to 29, : The Allied landing had not ended deportations — quite the reverse, in fact. Most of them were Communist activists who had just been evacuated from the Eysses central prison on May 30, in anticipation of an Allied invasion. June 28, : Philippe Henriot, named Secretary of State for Information and Propaganda in French government at the same time as Darnand, who was a famous chronicler on the Vichy radio, was shot by the Resistance. June 29, : The German military court of Nantes condemned 30 members of the Saffre forest maquis to death; 27 of them were shot the same day J.
June 30, : Another convoy left the Bobigny train station, taking 1, Jewish deportees, including children, to Auschwitz. Two weeks later, over 1, others were sent to a location near Hamburg and quickly forced to work for the German war economy FMD, , see vol. July 21, : After a series of German incursions in January and March, and by the Milice in April, the occupying troops launched a general offensive against the Vercors maquis; some of the German soldiers were parachuted in.
The operation was characterized by atrocities against the population at Vassieux and La Chapelle and the wounded Resistance fighters in the La Luire cave , and wiped out the maquis in three days. Around 1, people left Toulouse in this way; they were taken from the city prisons or from internment camps in the area.
Due to Allied progress, the Germans were unable to separate the men from the women beforehand in France, nor the Jews from the persons detained due to repressive measures, so all of them were sent off together. The Jewish deportees, over of them, were also registered in Buchenwald, but the camp arrival register mentioned that specificity, and their names were marked by a cross on the list.
They were not sent on to Auschwitz afterwards FMD, , vol. July 31, : The last large convoy composed of detainees from Drancyleft the Bobigny station, heading to Auschwitz and carrying almost 1, Jews. Hundreds of them had only just been arrested in the area. The same day, the Allies broke through the Normandy front in Avranches. August 9, : A last large train left the Southwest of France and Bordeaux, carrying detainees toward the Reich. The convoy headed toward the Southeast of France in order to cross the border more easily this time, but the Allied landing in Provence slowed it down again.
The prisoners on board over men and around 60 women according to the recently reconstituted lists finally arrived in Dachau three weeks later. August 11, : Similarly to what occurred in Toulouse on July 30, a new convoy left from provincial France carrying people, men and women, Jews and Resistance members all together.
The Jews of both sexes were transferred to Auschwitz without having passed through Drancy S. Klarsfeld, ; FMD, , vol. August 15, : French and American troops landed in Provence J. On the same day, the Germans formed the last large deportation convoy to leave from the area. Over 2, deportees arrested due to repression measures were sent inside the Reich only a few days before was liberated.
They were taken from all the prisons and camps of the area, in spite of the agreements being negotiated with the Swedish consul and the Red Cross. Procedures for the regular organization of deportation convoys, which had probably been set before the Allied landing, were followed right up until a week before the liberation of. As the evacuation had become urgent, the convoy finally departed from the Pantin train station, where some female prisoners from the Fresnes jail were also assembled; thus, they were not deported via Romainville.
The Pantin station was also chosen as a point of departure on August 15 Th. August 17, : The last convoy left Drancy carrying 51 people, some of which were hostages. Brunner himself left the camp on this train regarding this convoy, see J.
Chaigneau, , Le dernier wagon , : Julliard. August 18, : The Drancy camp was liberated. The retreat of German troops and police forces did not put an end to deportation or to massacres — quite the reverse, in fact. Nazi violence continued to the bitter end: in early February , people were still being deported from Colmar, in the annexed zone.
More generally, the entire civilian population was continually the target of massacres, blind shootings and deportation to the Reich. The imminent liberation of had not prevented the departure of the last mass convoy from the capital; similarly, the liberation of the entire country did not prevent the deportation of hundreds of men from the eastern cities of France, until November At least other detainees were taken to prisons in the Reich in August On the 23rd, around a hundred of them were sent to this concentration camp from Poitiers, Dijon and Nancy.
On the 30th, a large convoy which had left from Clermont-Ferrand, taken on more prisoners in Epinal and in Nancy, entered Natzweiler carrying deportees. The following day, 80 men arrested during operations at Baccarat, en Meurthe-et-Moselle, were also registered.
Most of these deportees brought from all over France were sent on to Dachau in early September. The other Alsatian camp, at Schirmeck, also became a transit center on the way to the Reich. At least 90 detainees arrived there in August from the occupied zone. August , : Many massacres illustrated the outburst of violence during the last few weeks of the occupation.
In general, from then on, civilian populations were mostly massacred in eastern France, where the retreating German troops were concentrated. August 25, : was liberated C. Buton, September-November : The Schirmeck camp, which was replacing Natzweiler as a transit camp, in a way, received a large number of detainees, most of which were members of the maquis and persons who had only just been rounded up during combat in the Vosges Mountains.
In September, 1, people were transferred to Alsace in transit toward the Reich , and another in October, and finally in November — even though Strasbourg was liberated on the 23rd of that month.
Likewise, the departure of other convoys was organized directly from Belfort in the direction of Buchenwald: men were sent off on September 5 and 60 others on October 3. On November 17, five days before the Belfort was liberated, one last convoy departed from the city, carrying around detainees to a Kommando in the Schirmeck camp, on the other side of the border FMD, This bibliography is centered specifically on the history of repression and persecution in France.
For some entries in the chronology above, we have indicated particular sources to be consulted. We have not included works on the Nazi concentration camp system and the Holocaust at the European level, excepting a few references which provide essential overviews on the subject.
Bancaud, Alain Une Exception ordinaire. La Magistrature en France, , : Gallimard. Buton, Philippe La Joie douloureuse. Le Convoi politique du 6 juillet , : Autrement. Conan, Eric Sans oublier les enfants. Les Camps de Pithiviers et de Beaune-la-Rolande. Delacor, Regina Attentate und Repressionen. Dreyfus, Jean-Marc Pillages sur ordonnances. Giolitto, Pierre Histoire de la Milice , : Perrin, re-edited in the Tempus paperback collection in Grynberg, Anne Les Camps de la honte. Von der Aufgabe der Freiheit.
Herbert, Ulrich Best. Jonca, K. Les grandes rafles. Levisse-Touze, Christine ed. Meyer, Ahlrich Die deutsche Besatzung in Frankreich Oppetit, Christian ed. Penaud, Guy Les Crimes de la division Brehmer. Peschanski, Denis; Berliere, Jean-Marc eds.
Autour de Robert O. Paxton , Brussels: Editions Complexe. Rayski, Adam Il y a soixante ans.
0コメント